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    Oceanography has been defined as 'The application of all sciences to the study of the sea'.
    Before the nineteenth century, scientists with an interest in the sea were few and far between. Certainly Newton considered some theoretical aspects of it in his writings, but he was reluctant（不愿意）to go to sea to further his work.
    For most people the sea was remote, and with the exception of early intercontinental travellers or others who earned a living from the sea, there was little reason to ask many questions about it, let alone to ask what lay beneath the surface. The first time that the question 'What is at the bottom of the oceans?' had to be answered with any commercial consequence was when the laying of a telegraph cable from Europe to America was proposed. The engineers has to know the depth profile（起伏形狀）of the route to estimate the length of cable that had to be manufactured.
    It was to Maury of the US Navy that the Atlantic Telegraph Company turned, in 1853, for information on this matter. In the 1840s, Maury had been responsible for encouraging voyages during which soundings（測深）were taken to investigate the depths of the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Later, some of his findings aroused much popular interest in his book The Physical Geography of the Sea.
    The cable was laid, but not until 1866 was the connection made permanent and reliable. At the early attempts, the cable failed and when it was taken out for repairs it was found to be covered in living growths, a fact which defied contemporary scientific opinion that there was no life in the deeper parts of the sea.
    Within a few years oceanography was under way. In 1872 Thomson led a scientific expedition（考察）, which lasted for four years and brought home thousands of samples from the sea. Their classification and analysis occupied scientists for years and led to a five-volume report, the last volume being published in 1895.

21. The passage implies that the telegraph cable was built mainly ________.
   A) for oceanographic studies              C) for business considerations
   B) for military purposes                  D) for investigating the depths of the oceans
22. It was ________ that asked Maury for help in oceanographic studies.
   A) the American Navy
   B) some early intercontinental travellers
   C) those who earned a living from the sea
   D) the company which proposed to lay an undersea cable
23. The aim of voyages Maury encouraged in the 1840s was ________.
   A) to make some sound experiments in the oceans
   B) to collect samples of sea plants and animals
   C) to estimate the length of cable that was to be made
   D) to measure the depths of two oceans
24. 'Defied' in the 5th paragraph probably means ________.
   A) 'doubted'                            B) 'challenged'
   C) 'gave proof to'                        D) 'agreed to'
25. This passage is mainly about ______.
   A) the beginnings of oceanography
   B) the laying of the first undersea cable
   C) the investigation of ocean depths
   D) the early intercontinental communications

    Psychologists take opposing views of how external rewards, from warm praise to cold cash, affect motivation and creativity. Behaviorists, who study the relation between actions and their consequences, argue that rewards can improve performance at work and school. Cognitive（認知學派的）researchers, who study various aspects of mental life, maintain that rewards often destroy creativity by encouraging dependence on approval and gifts from others.
    The latter view has gained many supporters, especially among educators. But the careful use of small monetary（金錢的）rewards sparks creativity in grade-school children, suggesting that properly presented inducements（刺激）indeed aid inventiveness, according to a study in the June Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
    "If kids know they're working for a reward and can focus on a relatively challenging task, they show the most creativity," says Robert Eisenberger of the University of Delaware in Newark. "But it's easy to kill creativity by giving rewards for poor performance or creating too much anticipation for rewards."
    A teacher who continually draws attention to rewards or who hands out high grades for ordinary achievement ends up with uninspired students, Eisenberger holds. As an example of the latter point, he notes growing efforts at major universities to tighten grading standards and restore failing grades.
    In earlier grades, the use of so-called token economies, in which students handle challenging problems and receive performance-based points toward valued rewards, shows promise in raising effort and creativity, the Delaware psychologist claims.

66. Psychologists are divided with regard to their attitudes toward ________.
   A) the choice between spiritual encouragement and monetary rewards
   B) the amount of monetary rewards for student's creativity
   C) the study of relationship between actions and their consequences
   D) the effects of external rewards on students' performance
67. What is the response of many educators to external rewards for their students?
   A) They have no doubts about them.         C) They approve of them.
   B) They have doubts about them.            D) They avoid talking about them.
68. Which of the following can best raise students' creativity according to Robert Eisenberger?
   A) Assigning them tasks they have not dealt with before.
   B) Assigning them tasks which require inventiveness.
   C) Giving them rewards they really deserve.
   D) Giving them rewards they anticipate.
69. It can be inferred from the passage that major universities are trying to tighten their grading standards because they believe ________.
   A) rewarding poor performance may kill the creativity of students
   B) punishment is more effective than rewarding
   C) failing uninspired students helps improve their overall academic standards
   D) discouraging the students' anticipation for easy rewards is a matter of urgency
70. The phrase "token economies" (Line 1, Para. 5) probably refers to ________.
   A) ways to develop economy               C) approaches to solving problems
   B) systems of rewarding students            D) methods of improving performance

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