注：主題題。主題關鍵詞為oceanography

　　Questions 1 to 5 are based on the following passage.

　　1. What the author discussed in the previous section is most probably about ____.

　　A) relationships between causes and results

　　B) classification of reasoning

　　C) some other common types of reasoning

　　D) some special type of reasoning

　　2. According to the passage, to do the "effect to effect" reasoning is to reason ____.

　　A) from cause to effect

　　B) from effect to cause

　　C) from effect to effect and on to cause

　　D) from effect to cause and on to another effect

　　3. A necessary cause is ____.

　　A) one without which it is impossible for the effect to occur

　　B) one of the causes that can produce the effect

　　C) one that is enough to make the effect occur

　　D) none of them

　　4. Your refrigerator is not working and you have found that the electric power has been cut off.

　　The power failure is a ____.

　　A) necessary cause B) sufficient cause

　　C) contributory cause D) none of them

　　5. This passage mainly discusses ____.

　　A) causal reasoning B) classification of cause

　　C) various types of reasoning D) the causal process

　　Questions 1 to 5 are based on the following passage.

　　Another common type of reasoning is the search for causes and results. We want to know whether cigarettes really do cause lung cancer, what cause malnutrition(營養不良), the decay of cities, or the decay of teeth. We are equally interested in effects: what is the effect of sulphur or lead in the atmosphere, of oil spills and raw sewage (污水、污物)in rivers and the sea, of staying up late on the night before an

　　examination?

　　注：1.reasoning 推理

　　2.第一句 Another...下結論，是主題句

　　3.第二、三句 We want to ...an examination?是舉例,可以略讀

　　4.malnutrition 中“mal”是表示“不好”的前綴;overnutrition 營養過剩

　　Causal reasoning may go from cause to effect or from effect to cause. Either way, we reason from what we know to what we want to find out. Sometimes we reason from an effect to a cause and then on to another effect. Thus, if we reason that because the lights have gone out, the refrigerator won't work we first relate the effect (lights out) to the cause (power off) and then relate that cause to another effect. This kind of reasoning is called, for short, effect to effect. It is quite common to reason through an extensive chain of causal relations. When the lights go out we might reason in the following causal chain: lights out-power off-refrigerator not working -temperature will rise-milk will sour. In other words, we diagnose (判定)a succession of effects from the power failure, each becoming the cause of the next.