注：1.causal 原因的，因果關(guān)系的

　　2.三種推理方式：從原因到結(jié)果、從結(jié)果到原因、從結(jié)果到原因再到另一個(gè)結(jié)果，第三種更重要

　　3.extensive 廣泛的，來自extend延伸 extensive reading 泛讀

　　4.In other words 換而言之 a succession of 一系列

　　5.本段講關(guān)系鏈

　　Causes are classified as necessary, sufficient, or contributory(起輔助作用的). A necessary cause is one which must be present for the effect to occur, as combustion (燃燒)，is necessary to drive a gasoline engine. A sufficient cause is one which can produce an effect unaided (獨(dú)自的), though there may be more than one sufficient cause: a dead battery is enough to keep a car from starting, but faulty spark plugs(火花塞)or an empty gas tank will have the same effect. A contributory cause is one which helps to produce an effect but cannot do so by itself, as running through a red light may help cause an accident, though other factors --- pedestrians (行人) or other cars in the intersection-must also be present.

　　注：intersection 交叉路口 inter+section

　　In establishing or refuting (駁斥，反斥) a causal relation it is usually necessary to show the process by which the alleged (所宣稱的，所指稱的) cause produces the effect. Such an explanation is called a causal process.

　　注：在證實(shí)或駁斥因果關(guān)系需要把推理過程顯示出來，如燈滅了，牛奶變酸：燈滅了-停電-冰箱不工作-溫度上升-牛奶變酸

　　1. What the author discussed in the previous section is most probably about ____.

　　A) relationships between causes and results

　　B) classification of reasoning

　　C) some other common types of reasoning

　　D) some special type of reasoning

　　注：文章之前的段落內(nèi)容=首句+結(jié)構(gòu)提示詞，one-the

　　other/some-another

　　Another common type of reasoning is the search for causes and results. We want to know whether cigarettes really do cause lung cancer, what cause malnutrition(營養(yǎng)不良), the decay of cities, or the decay of teeth. We are equally interested in effects: what is the effect of sulphur or lead in the atmosphere, of oil spills and raw sewage (污水、污物)in rivers and the sea, of staying up late on the night before an examination?

　　2. According to the passage, to do the "effect to effect" reasoning is to reason

　　A) from cause to effect

　　B) from effect to cause

　　C) from effect to effect and on to cause

　　D) from effect to cause and on to another effect

　　3. A necessary cause is ____.

　　A) one without which it is impossible for the effect to occur

　　B) one of the causes that can produce the effect

　　C) one that is enough to make the effect occur

　　D) none of them

　　注：第三段，A選項(xiàng)是必須在場的相同意思的改寫。B選項(xiàng)是原因之一，sufficient cause，C選項(xiàng)沒有"必須"含義。

　　Causes are classified as necessary, sufficient, or contributory(起輔助作用的). A necessary cause is one which must be present for the effect to occur, as combustion (燃燒)，is necessary to drive a gasoline engine. A sufficient cause is one which can produce an effect unaided (獨(dú)自的), though there may be more than one sufficient cause: a dead battery is enough to keep a car from starting, but faulty spark plugs(火花塞)or an empty gas tank will have the same effect. A contributory cause is one which helps to produce an effect but cannot do so by itself, as running through a red light may help cause an accident, though other factors --- pedestrians (行人) or other cars in the intersection-must also be present.